New Products and Technology Used in Residential Cooling Systems

 

New Products and Technology Used in Residential Cooling Systems

Professor Bertwin K. Lord, PhD, PE, PMP

Abstract

In the Air Conditioning industry there is a lot of New Products and Technology that are changing the way we use air conditioning, how the cooling effects are produced, and how we adapt to make the most use while conserving the most energy. In this paper I will be giving you an: Overview of Selected Technology; Impact of Selected Technology; Various Perspectives and Opinions; and Trends.

Overview of Selected Technology

Technology Selected Including What it Does and How it Works and Origins of Technology

Residential cooling systems are the devices used to remove heat from a residential dwelling.  Yet this really only gets to talk about a small part of what this is.  Removing heat is one part, but also limiting the amount of heat accumulation will also help to minimize the heat load inside a house.

There have been more changes in Air Conditioning Technology in the past 5 years then there have been in the previous fifty.  The origin of air conditioning was to remove moisture from a room so that a printing press could print on dry paper and the ink would set better.  This adaptation was invented by Mr. Carrier and the company that carries his name still continues to make air conditioning equipment to this day.

The changes in air conditioning come from advancing technology in inverter technology for compressors and fan motors, advances in refrigerant chemistry, and the introduction of secondary systems and products to increase efficiency in the air conditioning systems.

Joplin’s Air Conditioning listed 11 innovations that will change HVAC forever in a March 26^th, 2016 article on their company website. (11 Innovations That Will Change HVAC Forever, 2016) These changes are:

1.  Movement-Activated Air Conditioning,
2. Thermally Driven Air Conditioning,
3. On-Demand Hot Water Recirculator,
4. Ice-Powered Air Conditioning,
5. Sensor-Enhanced Ventilation,
6. Dual-Fire Heat Pumps,
7. Geothermal Heat Pumps,
8. Smart Homes,
9. Fully Automated Homes,
10. 3-D Printed Air Conditioners, and
11. Harnessing Heat from a Computer.

Much that is changing in the air conditioning industry is tracked by ACHR News and is published on their webpage. In 2019 Maria Taylor wrote at article about the new technologies that could change the future of HVACR. (Taylor, 2019) In her article she mentioned that cooling systems accounted for 17 percent of the electricity used around the world and 8 percent of global human greenhouse gas emissions. Maria mentioned: 

1. The Crytocooler, 
2. The Solar Thermal Collector, 
3. The SKYCOOL system blasts heat into space, 
4. ‘Smart Muscle’ released and absorbs heat, and 
5. Responding window panel all as new technology that will change the future of HVACR.

One of the most interesting technologies that I am following will be with Elon Musk’s Tesla Smart Home HVAC. Larry Anderson recently wrote an article on the many times Elon Musk has mentioned the Smart Home HVAC in his recent article in HVAC Informed. (Anderson, n.d.) In this Article, Larry talks about the Model Y Heat Pump, the Tesla Car-Inspired Temperature Controls, High-Efficiency Particulate Air Filters, Smart Thermostats, and more.

Impact of Selected Technology

Indirect or Direct Environmental Issues

How much does running your AC impact the environment? That is a question asked by many more now that the temperatures are getting hotter and more and more people turn to AC systems in their homes, businesses, and basically everywhere.

The first thing people point to with air conditioners is the hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) in refrigerant. Even though HFCs make up a small part of total greenhouse gases, they trap significantly more heat as CO2 or other greenhouse gases. Yet – HFCs are not realized while operating your AC.  They are only released when you improperly dispose of your old AC units.  This is why you should always hire a licensed HVACR professional to remove your AC and make sure they use proper recycling procedures. 

Even with HFCs not causing that much of a problem, running your AC creates other issues. In 2011, Air Conditioning was in nearly 100 million homes across America (RECS, Air conditioning in nearly 100 million U.S. homes, 2011) and roughly 6% of your home energy use if for air conditioning according to the Residential Energy Commission Survey conducted by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (RECS, eia.gov, 2013)

A quick survey of Google Scholar looking for environmental impact studies of air conditioning shows that little research is still going into the impact of refrigerant on the environment and more research is going into either supplementing the electrical demand with solar photo voltaic, reducing energy consumption, or introducing supplemental/secondary systems that use waste energy from one device as the harvest energy in a secondary device. This change in focus of research shows that the largest environmental impact concern for air conditioning is how much electricity it consumes.

Research posted by RECS (RECS, Air conditioning in nearly 100 million U.S. homes, 2011) also points to the worst energy abuses are homes in low income areas where there is air conditioning.  These homes will often not perform annual maintenance to keep the systems operating properly, they will not abide by proper repair standards, and they will keep energy inefficient systems running far longer than in homes that can afford the single purchase price of replacing an inefficient unit.

Positive of Negative Economic Effects

With the study completely by RECS in 2011 they found that only 6% of the energy consumed in a home was for AC.  This study was done in the USA and also was done across a wide divide.  In July of 2018 the EIA conducted another study to find that 12% of US home energy expenses was for air conditioning. This number went to 27% for hot-humid climates in the south east of the USA and down to 2% for the pacific north west. (Survey, 2018) This survey determined that air conditioning costs averaged $265 in 2015 with the range hitting $525 in the hot-humid zones.

I know that here in Hawaii I personally have AC being around 40% of my household electrical usage, as I have a solar and gas water heater. I have solar panels on my house that take up the full amount of electricity I use and this reduces my bill from what we estimate would be around $700 per month to $18 per month. We pay $18 as that is the base rate to be connected to the utility system.

The integration between air conditioning systems and solar photovoltaic (PV) systems has led to a reduction in the energy required to be produced by greenhouse gas producing sources.  A study in Brazil (Gustavo de Novaes Pires Leitea, 2019) showed that adding solar PV panels to a house that would eliminate the electrical demand on the grid had an ROI of less than 6 years. This was done without the benefits of tax breaks from the government. 

In the USA we have tax breaks from the Federal Government and most State governments to incentivize the home owner to install PV panels to counter the added electrical demand from AC. Sunrun has a great site to explain the economic incentives to adding solar panels to your electrical grid to counteract the electrical demand of AC. (SUNRUN, n.d.) Here the point out the 1) Federal Solar Tax Credit, 2) Net Energy Metering, 3) Solar Renewable Energy Credits, 4) Solar Tax Exemptions, and 5) Cash Rebates.

Solar PV is a good way to reduce economic impact by finding an alternative way to produce the energy in the long run.  With an ROI of 6 years, this is an attractive option as the solar PV panels often have a lifespan of 20+ years.  However Solar Thermal is a way to reduce the overall electrical demand of the air conditioning systems in the first place.  In 2014, Ali Al-Alilia, Yunho Hwang,  and Reinhard Radermacher provided a review of solar thermal and solar absorption cycles with regard to air conditioning. (Ali Al-Alilia, 2014) In this review they were investigating the advances made in some emerging technologies that had not yet been fully explored.  Even today in 2020 we do not have extensive testing done with these solar thermal and absorption types of air conditioning units.

Personally I have conducted research on the solar thermal panel that is tied directly into the refrigerant system on residential systems with an inverter style compressor. When we compared systems side by side that were the exact same size with the same heat load, we determined that the wattage draw for the system hooked into a solar thermal panel to assist the compressor with operation would consume up to 90% less energy then the standard system.

The economic impacts are not just from paying for the AC or finding new equipment to make how much you pay less, but also how much work is going to be completed when people feel hot because they cannot afford air conditioning in the work place. In Malaysia they have conducted estimates into the economic losses from perceived heat stress. (Kerstin K. Zander, 2019) The study found that many respondents only work at half their capacity when they feel hot.

Various Perspectives and Opinions

Political Implications and Influences

Very few things have ranked as high as refrigerants on the global political spectrum.  The world may argue about what type of economy is best and who should be spending what on weapons, and any number of disagreements, but the one thing they can all agree to do is condemn refrigerant.

During the 1970’s and 80’s, the world was awakened to the impact ozone depleting substances (ODS) were having on the ozone layer.  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, in 1985, formalized international cooperation with the specific goal of finding way to protect the ozone layer. (Treaty, 1985)

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer led to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, in 1987, that finalized as an agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The United States ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1988 and has joined 4 subsequent amendments.

On October 15^th, 2016 parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali amendment to phase down production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) worldwide. HFCs are widely used alternatives to ozone depleting substances such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), already controlled under the Protocol. (The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, n.d.)

The Montreal Protocol is signed by 197 countries and is considered the first treaty in the history of the United States to achieve universal ratification. This is considered by many to be the most successful environmental global action. And it is all to do with refrigerant. That means refrigerant has led to a more universal solidarity then anything else. 

Now, it is easy to make a poor country sign a protocol but not so easy to force them to meet the commitments, unless there is a financial incentive.  To answer that concern, in 1991, The Multilateral Fund was established to assist developing nations meet Montreal Protocol commitments. The Fund has approved activities including: 1) industrial conversion; 2) technical assistance; 3) training; and 4) capacity building. The fund has spent over 3.0 billion US Dollars. (Multilateral Fund for the Implmentation of the Montreal Protocol, n.d.)

Of course, just passing some protocols and bringing funding in is not enough.  There also needs to be a symbolic gesture. In 1995, the United Nations named September 16^th the International Day for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, also known as World Ozone Day. (International Day for the Preservation, n.d.) Sill not sure if this has helped in any way.  I have never celebrated IDftPotOL in any way. It is September, so it is still warm here in Hawaii.  Maybe this would be something fun to do this year. I will see if I can get my community involved.  Nowadays they seem to come up with any excuse to violate the COVID-19 restrictions.

With all these agreements being signed, there was a commitment to do something about refrigerants being released or finding alternatives to refrigerants.  There needs to be specific studies on what to do and improvements that can be done.

In 1997 James R. Sand, Steven K. Fischer, and Van D. Baxter of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee through funding by the Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AEFAS) of the United States Department of Energy completed a study entitled Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies. (James R. Sand, 1997) The study found that reducing the use of CFCs would not necessarily have a NET positive result.  The use of non Chlorine refrigerants would decrease efficiency to a point where the extra energy usage would not have a positive effect overall.  The recommendation was to improve the quality of the equipment with refrigerant to ensure the refrigerant did not leak. There would also be an increase in the training of those who handled refrigerants to ensure they were not indiscriminately releasing refrigerant into the atmosphere.

I mention this report because it is largely ignored.  No report has been conducted since this report on the impact of refrigerants as ozone depleting sources (ODS). In fact, funding for similar research has not been pushed from in most industries and the EPA specifically has decreased its enforcement of many of the protocols that were put in place on those who work with refrigerants.  Funding for the enforcement arm that used to come to HVACR company’s shops and quiz them or make sure they were following protocol has essentially been gutted. The recovery companies that were supposed to be within easy access to every company to ensure that the companies would bring in their refrigerant for recovery and recycling have essentially been shuttered with some locations not having a recycling center for hundreds of miles.

Public Opinion on Technology Such as the Media, Consumers, and Community

Specifically speaking about refrigerant, the latest kerfuffle with the media, consumers, and the community would be the increasing cost of R-22 refrigerant.  Chlorodifluoromethane CHCIF 2 … R-22 … HCFC-22 is being phased out. The EPA has stated that in 2020 R-22 will not be allowed to be made anymore.  This means that the price of R-22 has started to increase.  No more equipment is being made to take R22 and the transition has been made over to R-410a with equipment manufacturers, so it is also decreasing in demand as the supply is going down.  This has led to a slower raise in prices then was anticipated, but some are feeling the price difference already. As our customers old R-22 units breakdown or spring a leak, they cost of replacement refrigerant is getting so high that the decision is often made to buy a new unit with the new refrigerant to help eliminate these costs and future expected costs too.

When you do a search on the internet for public opinion with regards to HVACR and emerging technology, there is not a lot of discussion.  Some websites talk about TESLA getting involved in the HVACR business and there is excitement building around that.  In the USA there is a lot of talk now about heat pumps (mini splits) and what type of energy savings are involved and concern about the cost with replacing their unitary central air systems.

In this desire to find the next new thing that can provide cooling at a cheaper rate, there are many old technologies being dusted off and given a shiny new coat and some modern electronic accouterments.

The “new” rage is using a swamp cooler with a thermoelectric cooler.  This is taking an old technology and a new one and combining them.

One of the oldest air conditioning technology in the entire world has been to bring water into your courtyard or capture water in terracotta tubes or jars and use it to control the temperature inside the house.  Blowing air across these cooled surfaces has been used for hundreds, if not thousands of years. (INHABITAT, n.d.)

Thermoelectric cooling relies on the Peltier effect, named for the 19th century scientist who discovered it. When an electric charge is sent through two joined pieces of metal it creates a heat flux, and heat is transferred from one side of the device to the other. One side gets hot and the other side gets cold. The core cooling device (called a heat pump) is small, not much more than an inch square, with semiconductor wires embedded between the two ceramic plates. (NEWAIR, 2018)

Right now, the public is being bombarded with ads for these new technologies.  I have heard radio shows talking about these new AC units. I have seen this being discussed on TV.  At my AC company in Hawaii, I have had people call me and ask my opinion on if these will work or if they could send these with their kids to college and keep them cool.  I have even been asked to come on a local internet show on technology to give an expert opinion on these devices.  It seems the public is taking interest.

As the world gets hotter, and let’s face is, as Americans get fatter and can no longer handle the heat, we are looking more to air conditioning to keep things cool.  Living in Hawaii there were many communities built in the 60’s and 70’s that did not incorporate air conditioning into their buildings.  Back then it was viewed as a luxury that was not required here in Hawaii.  Flash forward to today and many of the communities who actually had ordinances forbidding air conditioning, are changing these rules and asking me to come in and give them quotes on how they can get air conditioning to all of their tenants. 

Hawaii also has some of the most expensive electricity in the United States.  At $0.36/kWh we in Hawaii pay two to three times more then our mainland fellow citizens to power … well … anything. For this reason, there is a lot of public opinion about that.  Solar Air Conditioners are constantly being brought up and the public is looking for an answer to have air conditioning without having to pay a lot for it. To answer their desire several companies have put together a package that includes heat pump styled air conditioners coupled with solar PV panels and even batteries to make the air conditioning system completely a grid disconnected system.

The single greatest thing right now that could help air conditioning be more efficient, more environmentally friendly, and more user friendly is the smart controls that enable a homeowner to control their air-conditioning from anywhere in the world. Most of the innovations you find online really are smart control innovations.  Units like the NEST are smart controllers connected to dumb thermostats but still add a level of sophistication. New AC controls built into the control boards of the AC systems themselves and more efficient motors make the new controllers able to run the air conditioner at its most efficient through a series of smart controls.  This is a smart controller and smart thermostat.

Trends

Future Direction and Roadmap of Technology

The future of technology as a whole and this applies to residential cooling systems, is sustainability. Samantha Lile has an amazing article in Motili that essentially gives my point of view on much of this. (Lili, 2019) Previous advances in HVAC has been mostly mechanical but the new industry developments are electronics and controls. “We will see larger improvements in energy efficiency over the next 15 years than we have ever seen in the history of air-conditioning – not just in peak-load improvements, but in energy efficiency throughout the year,” ASHRAE president Kent Peterson told Buildings magazine. (Suttell, 2006)

 A heat pump system with a variable speed compressor and controls that monitor the inside temperatures and outside temperatures and humidity in each room and modulates the air handler in each room to make sure the most efficient makeup for the air conditioner is maintained is available most everywhere and can be installed. This is much more efficient then the single stage unitary systems that cool the entire house even if only one room needs it.

Controls in each room can also detect if there are people in the room or have timer settings for each room and not just the main systems.  The technology that goes into regulating the compressor on the outside unit will almost keep the system running at minimal energy just to keep the house dry. If you live in a place with fluctuating energy costs, you can even set your AC to run at max capacity during the times you have the cheapest power and cool down the house and then run at lowest capacity when the electricity costs the most.

Combining your Air Conditioner with other systems in your house is also a way to make the entire house more efficient.  Each system you have will have waste energy, and this energy can be harnessed into another system instead of just letting that energy go to waste.  In a residential setting, the easiest system to hook into your AC is the hot water heater. Most systems will enable you to hook up a desuperheater. (Energy Smart Alternatives, n.d.) To have a desuperheater that ties into your water heater and captures the waste heat and allows your water heater to not have to turn on to make sure you have hot water.

Solar Thermal panels that tie into the refrigerant system and do some of the work of the systems compressor is also another technology that increases the efficiency of your AC and allows you to keep your house much cooler during the day as you remove the heat added by the sun during the day. (energy sage, n.d.) This system will enable you to use the energy of the sun not just by providing electricity but by providing that heat energy.

Geothermal is another technology that is revolutionary.  (CERES, n.d.) Here you can buy pipes in the ground and pump air through them. In the winter, the air will be warm and in the summer the air will be cold.  This will give you a temperate climate inside the greenhouse year-round and allow you to grow citrus crops in Northern Wisconsin or grow herbs in central Texas.

If we want to talk about energy efficiency – we can talk about new mechanical systems and automation controls but if we do not address insulation, then we are not doing anyone any justice.  Heat moves… not cold.  So – how do we control where heat goes and where it does not?  In Hawaii we are always looking to eliminate heat gain. The sun is our major source of heat gain for residential dwellings.  Many of the old homes here were not built with insulation in the walls or in the ceilings.  One trend that I have seen gaining traction here in Hawaii is insulating attics, walls, crawl spaces, and anywhere the sun can heat up a space and have that heat gain add to what needs to be removed from a house by an AC system.  New and improved windows are another trend with triple paned windows with inert gas inserts and various shading injected into the windows also aids in limiting heat gain.

When I give examples, I speak mostly to air conditioning, because there is not a lot of call of heating in Hawaii.  Yet there are some new technologies that work for heating as well.  Duel fuels is one of the interest advancements where the furnace would be able to use multiple fuel types for a heat source and allow the homeowner to use whichever fuel is cheaper. 

These are all innovations and technologies that make air conditioning for efficient but when I started this, I used the word sustainable.  It is true that efficiency is part of sustainability as it reduced the amount of energy required to keep a building cool.  However, the second part, and to me the most important part, of sustainability is the longevity of a unit.  It used to be that we made things to last.  I have replaced furnaces in houses where the furnace was installed when the home was built in the 1920’s.  I was replacing these units in the 1990s. Seventy years is a good lifespan but even that could have been extended.  When we make something new, we must use materials.  These materials must come from somewhere. We can either mine these materials raw from the Earth or we can use existing materials that have been used for other products but have been recycled into a new reusable material.  In my mind, the future of all technology is going to be finding a way to use recycled materials to make new products and make these products to last for as long as possible without always having to keep replacing them and possibly using up all of our resources of raw materials.

Gaps in the Current Application of the new Technology, or Opportunities to Drive Towards New Market

Now – when we talk about improvements in efficiencies, we are talking about reduced cost of operation but there is always that initial cost hurdle … and that hurdle is often quite the leap.  A more efficient system can often cost thousands of dollars more than a cheaper less efficient systems. It all comes down to a return on investment. How much energy will this new system save me and how much am I paying for energy. Does the cost work out?

In the USA we also have some competing technologies for what is used to become energy efficient.  Solar PV panels on your roof can knock down your energy bill to almost nothing, so why would you spend the money on getting a more efficient air conditioner? 

Hawaii has some of the most expensive electricity in the USA. At $0.366/kWh we pay the same as many island nations, but we are 2x to 3x more expensive than most places on the mainland USA.  Even with this extra cost, there are some houses that have so many solar panels and the sun is always direct here in Hawaii.  This makes it so many people meet their electrical needs and already do not have to pay an electric bill, so it would not be economical to spend thousands more on a system that is not going to save you any money.

Yet – if we are going to talk about a GAP that will affect current advancement trends from being adopted, we need to talk about people. I am not talking about customers.  I am talking about the HVAC people themselves.  The HVAC industry is inundated with Baby Boomers who are averse to new technology and advancements and they are the ones training any new people coming into the industry. The very first thing that needs to happen is to get the people currently working with HVAC to accept these modernization trends and learn these new systems.  Many of the existing workforce is afraid of all the automation in HVAC.

There is also an extreme shortage of young people coming into the HVAC trade.  Decades of teachers preaching that you need to go to college and you need to shy away from the trades because that is where the stupid people with no future go, have caused a negative mindset about trades jobs. 

To combat both problems, the trades are going high tech into their training.  There are more and more online HVAC schools to give people an entrance understanding into HVAC.  Some trade schools and companies have incorporated Virtual Reality training programs where they can upload every single type of HVAC equipment that a technician will ever see in their entire career and give them firsthand experience with how they look and how to approach repairs on them.

“Those experienced workers [baby boomers] will need to be replaced with those who are more comfortable with new technologies and who are well-trained in computers, electronics, and refrigerant handling, to name a few challenges,” said Francis Dietz, vice president of public affairs at AHRI. “But in some ways, that makes our industry more attractive to today’s young workforce, many of whom have taken courses in computer science and electronics and are not only more familiar with them but also more excited about a job that involves technology.”

 

References

Purdue Online Writing Lab (n.d.). General Writing FAQs. Retrieved from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/general_writing_faqs.html

Russino, H. (2015, April 16). What is a rubric and how can it improve my grades? Thomas Edison State University.

11 Innovations That Will Change HVAC Forever. (2016, March 26). Retrieved from Bill Joplin's Air Conditioning & Heating: https://joplins.net/articles/11-innovations-that-will-change-hvac-forever

Ali Al-Alilia, Y. H. (2014). Review of solar thermal air conditioning technologies. International Journal of Refrigeration, 4-22.

Anderson, L. (n.d.). Elon Musk Expresses His Vision For Residential HVAC Innovation - Should We Listen? Retrieved from HVACinformed.com: https://www.hvacinformed.com/insights/elon-musk-residential-hvac-innovation-co-1588748159-ga.1588750472.html

CERES. (n.d.). Retrieved from GAHT Systems: A Geothermal Option: https://ceresgs.com/climate-control/gaht/

energy sage. (n.d.). Retrieved from Solar Thermal – Air-Conditioning Systems use the sun's energy to heat water or antifreeze. This captured heat is then used to power thermally activated cooling systems to provide air conditioning.: https://www.energysage.com/about-clean-energy/types/solar-air-conditioning

Energy Smart Alternatives. (n.d.). Retrieved from How a Geothermal Desuperheater Works: https://energysmartalternatives.com/2013/03/how-a-geothermal-desuperheater-works/

Gustavo de Novaes Pires Leitea, F. W. (2019, April 1). An economic analysis of the integration between air-conditioning and solar photovoltaic systems. Energy Conversion and Management, 185, pp. 836-849.

INHABITAT. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://inhabitat.com/brilliant-zero-energy-air-conditioner-in-india-is-beautiful-and-functional/

International Day for the Preservation. (n.d.). Retrieved from UN: https://www.un.org/en/events/ozoneday/

James R. Sand, S. K. (1997). Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies. Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS), U.S. Department of Energy.

Kerstin K. Zander, S. M. (2019). Estimating economic losses from perceived heat stress in urban Malaysia. Ecological Economics, 89-90.

Lili, S. (2019, March 22). Future HVAC Technology Will Focus on Sustainability, Automation and Data. Retrieved from motili: https://www.motili.com/future-hvac-technology-sustainability-automation-data/

Multilateral Fund for the Implmentation of the Montreal Protocol. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.multilateralfund.org/default.aspx

NEWAIR. (2018, Jan 10). How Thermoelectric Wine Coolers Work. Retrieved from https://www.newair.com/blogs/learn/how-thermoelectric-wine-coolers-work

RECS. (2011, August 19). Air conditioning in nearly 100 million U.S. homes. Retrieved from U.S. Energy Information Administation : https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/reports/2009/air-conditioning.php

RECS. (2013, March 7). eia.gov. Retrieved from Heating and cooling no longer majority of U.S. home energy use: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=10271

SUNRUN. (n.d.). Federal and State Incentives for Going Solar. Retrieved from sunrun.com: https://www.sunrun.com/go-solar-center/solar-articles/federal-and-state-incentives-for-going-solar

Survey, 2. R. (2018, July 23). Air conditioning accounts for about 12% of U.S. home energy expenditures. Retrieved from EIA.gov: https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=36692

Suttell, R. (2006, 11 02). Buildings Magazine. Retrieved from HVAC is the biggest impact on the way buildings are designed, built, and occupied: https://www.buildings.com/article-details/articleid/3427/title/past-present-future-hvac

Taylor, M. (2019, May 27). New Technologies That Could Be the Future of HVACR. Retrieved from the NEWS ACHRNEWS.com: https://www.achrnews.com/articles/141304-new-technologies-that-could-be-the-future-of-hvacr

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. (n.d.). Retrieved from UN Environment Programme: https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol

Treaty, U. (1985, March 22). Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Vienna. Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-2&chapter=27&clang=_en

 

Current Waste Management Techniques, the Environmental Impact of Those Techniques and Suggestions for Improvement

A study into the impact of Waste Management in Dohuk, Iraq and Iraqi Kurdistan

Introduction
The northern region of Iraq is known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Long has it been the vacations spot of the various leaders and kings that have ruled the surrounding land. The mountains of Kurdistan offer a cool respite from the summer heat below, and the gently running streams gurgle their way through their chiseled paths in Kurdistan’s ruggedly beautiful landscape. Yet this beauty is under attack. Imagine a not to distant future where the Kurdish people are driven from their lands, not by a ruthless dictator or warring tribes. Instead they will be kicked out by something so small it can only be seen under a microscope. This is Kurdistan’s future unless they act now.

You do not have to walk far in Kurdistan anymore to see the evidence of environmental pollution. Every lake and stream is polluted with strewn garbage. Plastic bags are caught in trees, and broken glass seems to litter every gathering place in the country. During the day you can see the smoke of garbage fires releasing toxins into the air as the people burn plastics, cardboard, household filth, and biodegradable waste. Inside the cities the streets are choked with filth strewn everywhere. When you ask the people why they do not care about keeping their city clean, they always ask “why should we care.”

That is an excellent question. Why should someone care about keeping their city clean when there is no continuous power, when the average wage is only $100 per month, when there are more college graduates then jobs and the majority of those jobs are in government offices, and when 18 year old soldiers make more money then university professors. Why should they care?

Effects of Improper Waste Remediation
Over the past several decades, major changes in waste composition have taken place with the introduction of synthetic products and packaging derived from hydrocarbons and chlorine including plastics, solvent, bleach or pesticides. Recent regulations ban hazardous substances and waste dangerous goods but many of these toxic materials are found at municipal waste disposal grounds as either components of packaging, household cleaning products or products. These materials may represent a much greater danger to public health and the environment than common materials found in household waste

Burned under conditions found in burning barrels or waste disposal grounds such as low temperature ranges (250 C to 700 C), oxygen-starved conditions and the presence of hydrochloric acid or chlorine, mixed garbage will produce several different air toxics. These include total dioxins and furans, total volatile organic compounds measured as methane, air toxics, metals including antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, mercury, phosphorus and titanium, particulate matter (PM), hydrogen chloride (HCl), carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.

Burning activities at waste disposal grounds affects several groups of people associated with the site's activities. These include users of the waste disposal ground, maintenance people, local area residents, businesses, land owners and possibly children who may be attracted to the site especially if it is close to a community. In Iraqi-Kurdistan waste disposal grounds are located a short distance from the communities they serve. The growth of these cities is causing encroachment on existing waste disposal grounds establishing many concerns for the populace in those towns.

It is difficult to determine the exact emissions at each site due to the many variables affecting the burn. The time of year, climate (wind and ambient temperature), type of community (urban, rural or recreational), compactness of the refuse pile, moisture content and available recycling opportunities affect the household waste composition and the chemical compounds in resulting pollutants when they are burned. The relatively low temperatures associated with open burning increase emissions of particulates, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Sulfur oxide emissions are a function of the refuse's sulfur content.

Common Forms of Airborne Pollutants from burning Trash
There are many pollutants that are released with burning a community’s trash. Particulate matter is the general term for particles of soot and dust in the atmosphere. Particulates are composed of organic matter and compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen and metals. These particles may be inhaled and irritate the respiratory system and prolonged inhalation may increase the number and severity of chronic respiratory disease cases.

Sulfur oxides may be released if refuse being burned contains sulfur compounds. Studies of serious air pollution occasions found an increase in mortalities among people with existing heart and lung disease. Even when concentrations are below what may be considered serious; there may be a noticeable increase in acute and chronic respiratory disease cases. Healthy people may experience sore throats, shortness of breath and breathing difficulties. Sulfur oxides can cause vegetation damage, corrode many materials and contribute to acid rain.

Carbon monoxide is a common pollutant which may be released from the incomplete combustion of municipal waste. This compound binds chemically to the hemoglobin in the blood stream, the substance which carries oxygen to the heart, brain and other body tissues. Exposure to carbon monoxide causes dizziness, headaches, slowed reflexes and reduces the ability to perform physical exercise. Even at relatively low concentrations, carbon monoxide can affect mental function, visual acuity and alertness.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) refers to a large group of compounds which may be released during the incomplete burning in municipal landfills of almost any kind of organic material including fats, meat, coffee, rubber and other material. Many VOCs are known to have direct toxic effects on humans, ranging from cancer risks to nervous system disorders. VOCs also contribute to the formation of ground level ozone (smog). Elevated ozone levels have been shown to cause adverse health effects on the human respiratory system and are strongly suspected of playing a role in the long term development of chronic lung disease. Ozone effects on vegetation damage are well documented with millions of dollars estimated in crop damage in certain areas of Canada due to elevated ozone levels.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are VOCs, are the primary contributors to stratospheric ozone level depletion and are involved in the global warming effect.

Nitrogen Oxides (NO) may be released in the open burning of municipal refuse. Certain nitrogen compounds may cause adverse health effects to the human respiratory system. The primary concerns with NO emissions are their contribution to the formation of ground level ozone and acid rain. To a lesser extent, some NO compounds contribute to stratospheric ozone layer depletion and global warming.

Health and Environmental Conditions of Pollutants
With all of these pollutants from burning there are significant environmental and health effects. The Particulate Matter causes Irritation of respiratory tract, aggravated asthma, and contributes to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The environmental effects are increased toxic loading on the environment, and lead to contaminated water/land and affects animal health.

Sulfur oxides cause Increase in heart/lung disease, acute/chronic respiratory disease. Healthy people experience shortness of breath, sore throats, and breathing difficulties. Environmentally sulfur oxide causes vegetative damage, corrodes many materials, and contributes to acid rain (forests, aquatic and urban environments i.e. structures).

Carbon Monoxide causes dizziness, headaches and slowed reflexes, affects mental function, visual acuity and alertness. Environmentally it oxidizes to carbon dioxide (which is a greenhouse gas) in the atmosphere.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) is directly toxic this includes problems ranging from cancer risks to nervous disorders, causes respiratory irritation/illness, chronic lung disease. Environmentally VOC contributes to low level ozone (smog), causes vegetative damage. Leads to contaminated water/land, and affects animal health.

Nitrogen Oxides causes respiratory illness, fluid collection in the lungs and fibrotic changes. Environmentally Nitrogen Oxide contributes to acid rain and ozone formation.

Polynuclear Hydrocarbons may cause cancer. Environmentally they increase toxic loading on the environment, lead to contaminated water/land, and affects animal health.

Aldehydes cause eye and respiratory tract irritation, and headaches. It is also an animal carcinogen. Environmentally it leads to increased toxic loading on the environment, leads to contaminated water/land, and affects animal health.

Dioxins and Furans may cause cancer, causes growth defects, affects DNA, and affects immune and reproductive systems. Environmentally they increase toxic loading on the environment, leads to contaminated water/land, and affects animal health.

Heavy Metals (such as Mercury) are highly toxic. Heavy metals collect in the human system until a lethal dosage is reached this causes respiratory/intestinal problems. Environmentally they increase the toxic loading on the environment, lead to contaminated water/land, and affects animal health.

Hydrochloric Acid causes irritation of the respiratory tract, respiratory illness, and dulls the body's senses. Environmentally increase toxic loading on the environment, leads to contaminated water and land, and affects animal health.

Hydrogen Sulfide (H S) is toxic causing respiratory disease. In healthy people they experience shortness of breath, sore throats, breathing difficulties, and irritated eyes. Environmentally it contributes to acid rain, may damage vegetation, and causes offensive odors.
Integrated Waste Management

In order to handle growing volumes of wastes, the proper policies need to be enacted and implemented. The approach to waste management regarded as the most compatible with an environmentally sustainable development is called “Integrated Waste Management.” This approach consists of a hierarchical and coordinated set of actions that reduces pollution, seeks to maximize recovery of reusable and recyclable materials, and protects human health and the environment. Integrated Waste Management aims to be socially desirable, economically viable and environmentally sound. The Integrated Waste Management approach can be adapted to the specific conditions evident in Dohuk and Kurdistan.

Waste Prevention
Waste prevention is given the highest priority in Integrated Waste Management. This is a preventive action that seeks to reduce the amount of waste that individuals, businesses and other organizations generate. By not creating waste, fewer collection vehicles and a fewer number of refuse collectors would be needed; fewer and smaller waste handling facilities would be required, and it would extend the life of the landfills. Society as a whole would be benefited from a successful implementation of a waste prevention program. There are several ways in which waste generation can be prevented:

· By enacting public policies that discourage the production, sale and consumption of products containing unnecessary packaging material

· By enacting public policies that discourage the production, sale and consumption of disposable products

· By enacting public policies that encourage the production, sale and consumption of reusable or recyclable products

· By enacting public policies that encourage the production, sale and consumption of long-lasting products (which do not have to be discarded often)

· By enacting public policies that promote the consumption of large-size products. The amount of packaging material –plastics, glass or metal– needed to contain a kilogram or liter of a product decreases as the size of a product increases. In other words, larger bottles and containers require less material per unit of product than smaller ones. When they are discarded, it results in less waste that needs to be collected, transported and disposed of

· By enacting public policies that encourage the production, sale and consumption of repairable products (that do not have to be discarded when they malfunction)

· By minimizing the weight of products. Public policies could encourage the production, sale and consumption of light-weight products (which, when discarded, would result in a reduction of the weight of the waste to be collected, transported and disposed of)

Reuse
Once the waste prevention program has been implemented, the next priority in an Integrated Waste Management approach is promoting the reuse of products and materials.
Reuse consists in the recovery of items to be used again, perhaps after some cleaning and refurbishing. Reusing materials and products saves energy and water, reduces pollution, and lessens society’s consumption of natural resources compared to the use of single-use products and materials.

Reuse of materials and products is regarded as more socially desirable than recycling the same materials. Beverage bottles –soda or beer bottles– can be disposable, returnable (reusable) or recyclable. Reusable bottles have the lowest environmental impact of the three, while disposable bottles require the most energy, water and generate the largest amount of waste and pollution.
Even though private companies have created reuse programs on their own, if public policies existed to promote it, reuse could dramatically increase. Public policies that provide incentives for businesses and individuals to engage in reuse can have a significant and positive economic and environmental impact.

Recycling
After the reuse of materials and products, recycling comes next in the Integrated Waste Management hierarchy. Recycling is the recovery of materials for melting them, re-pulping them and reincorporating them as raw materials. It is technically feasible to recycle a large amount of materials, such as plastics, wood, metals, glass, textiles, paper, cardboard, rubber, ceramics, and leather. Demand determines the types and amounts of materials that are recycled in a particular region.

Recycling can render social, economic, and environmental benefits. It provides an income to the scavengers who recover recyclable materials. Factories that consume recyclable materials can be built for a fraction of the cost of building plants that consume virgin materials. Recycling saves energy, water, and generates less pollution than obtaining virgin raw materials, which translates into lower operating costs. Recycling also reduces the amount of wastes that need to be collected, transported and disposed of, and extends the life of disposal facilities, which saves money to the municipalities. Recycling can result in a more competitive economy and a cleaner environment, and can contribute to a more sustainable development.

Recycling can be conducted in a number of ways. In the developed world, municipalities have created recycling programs, which usually involve separation of recyclable materials at the source of generation. In this type of programs, individuals and businesses separate their recyclable materials in a different container and before they are mixed with the rest of their garbage. The materials commonly separated at the source include metals, glass, paper and plastics. The cleaner and the more homogeneous a material is, the higher the price industry is willing to pay for it. Therefore, source separation is preferable to salvaging materials from mixed wastes.

Material Recovery Facilities have been used in some developed countries. Material Recovery Facilities are plants where recyclables are recovered sorted and processed for sale to industry. They can either process source-separated recyclables from a recycling program, or mixed wastes the way they are collected from residential and other sources. Material Recovery Facilities typically use different types of magnetic and pneumatic equipment, as well as conveyor belts and human sorters to classify the recyclable materials.

In the developing world, municipalities usually lack recycling programs. That does not mean, however, that recycling does not exist. Informal recycling is common throughout Africa, Asia and Latin America. Scavengers carry out the bulk of recycling of municipal wastes. Scavengers salvage recyclable materials on the streets, before collection crews arrive, at communal refuse dumpsters, at illegal open dumps, as well as at municipal open dumps and landfills.

Scavenging could provide an income to unemployed individuals, recent migrants who have been unable to find employment in the formal sector, women, children, and elderly individuals.

Incineration
In an Integrated Waste Management approach, incineration occupies the next to last priority, after waste prevention, reuse, and recycling have been undertaken. Incineration is the burning of wastes under controlled conditions, usually carried out in an enclosed structure. Incineration may include energy recovery.

Experience with incineration in developing countries has been mostly negative. Incinerators built in Africa, Asia and Latin America did not function as promised. In Lagos, Nigeria, incinerators were built at a cost of U.S. $ 10 million. The moisture content of wastes was so high that fuel had to be added to maintain combustion, which increased costs significantly. The incinerators never operated normally, one was abandoned and the other turned into a community center. Similar experiences have been observed in India, Mexico, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Turkey. Therefore, incineration of municipal waste is likely to fail in Dohuk and cause physical and environmental hazards.

Sanitary Landfills
Final disposal of wastes at sanitary landfills is given the lowest priority in an Integrated Waste Management approach. A sanitary landfill is a facility designed specifically for the final disposal of wastes that minimizes the risks to human health and the environment associated with solid wastes. Sanitary landfills commonly include one, two or three different liners at the bottom and sides of the disposal area, in order to prevent leachates from polluting nearby surface waters or aquifers. Liners also prevent the underground movement of methane. Waste arriving at landfills is compacted and then covered with a layer of earth, usually every day. This prevents animals from having access to the organic matter to feed. Sanitary landfills may also include other pollution control measures, such as collection and treatment of leachate, and venting or flaring of methane.

It is possible to produce electricity by burning the methane that landfills generate. Extending the life of landfills and diverting as much as possible by waste prevention, reuse, recycling and composting can make economic sense. Diverting materials from landfills can also create jobs, reduce poverty, improve economic competitiveness, reduce pollution and conserve natural resources.

Sanitary landfills are necessary for final disposal of the wastes that could not be prevented, reused, recycled or composted. Ideally, sanitary landfills should be used primarily for non-reusable, non-recyclable and non-compostable residues. Sanitary landfills constitute a dramatic improvement over disposal of wastes in open dumps. Sanitary landfills greatly reduce pollution and risks to human health and the environment compared to open dumping.
Ways to pay for Municipal Garbage Collection

Providing municipal waste collection services is a problem all over the world. This problem is amplified in developing countries like Iraq and especially Kurdistan. Due to low economic backing and limited knowledge on waste remediation techniques these problems are again amplified. One possible solution to these problems is privatization of waste collection services. This will allow better service and improved environmental conditions as well as introducing foreign investment into the municipal equation. Bringing in outside investors and waste remediation companies will also bring in outside knowledge and expertise.
According to a field study by the World Bank and others, “the private delivery of municipal solid waste services can be successful in terms of greater efficiency, coverage and quality of service. Keys to successful private sector involvement in municipal solid waste management include creating contestable markets, establishing an appropriate regulatory framework and operations standards for contractors, and strengthening local government capacity to negotiate contracts and monitor performance. In the simplest terms, the focus must be on competition, transparency, and accountability.” This study is available for use by any municipality and covers many of the issues faced with privatization.

Even when services are provided by a private entity the local and central government is still responsible for ensuring proper collection and disposal and municipal waste. The government can mitigate duties and roles but never the responsibility.

Through establishing proper zones inside of a city and a privatization program a local government can ensure that waste collection and remediation services are provided to their citizens while promoting better business and protecting the environment. For this to happen their must be cooperation and collaboration between the private industry sector and the government. Oversight must be provided to ensure the private sector is meeting all established requirements and the government must provide contracts of adequate length to ensure profit margins will allow for proper remediation techniques to be implemented.

Summary
In Dohuk and Iraqi Kurdistan current waste collection and remediation techniques are inadequate leading to several environmental and health problems and concerns. If left unresolved, this problem will only grow until it is no longer fixable. Even with this scenario a possibility Dohuk and Iraqi Kurdistan can still change. Through a more aggressive public policy and introduction of privatized services Dohuk can ensure the health of their people and their environment for generations to come.





References
Martin Medina. Globalization, Development, and Municipal Solid Waste
Management in Third World Cities. El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Tijuana, Mexico
Southern African Nature Foundation, Enviro Facts
Jorge Enrique Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, David Satterthwaite. Environmental Problems in Third World Cities.
Dr.M. R. M. Crul and J. C. Diehl. (2006). Design for Sustainability (D4S): a Practical Approach for Developing Economies.
UNEP. (2007). GEO Year Book 2007. ISBN No: 978-92-807-2786-9
Plastics Europe, Pastics and Environment, http://www.plasticseurope.org/content/default.asp?PageID=94
Abad, R. (1991). Squatting and Scavenging in Smokey Mountain. Ateneo de Manila: Philippine Studies. 39: 267-285.
Anon. (1992). The Jakarta Post. September 22: 3.
Anon. (1982). La Basura y el Medio Ambiente. Premio Serfin al Medio Ambiente. Mexico City: mimeo.
Bartone, C. (1988). The Value in Wastes. Decade Watch. September: 3-4.
Brown, L. and J Jacobson. (1987). The Future of Urbanization: Facing the Ecological and Economic Constraints. Worldwatch Paper 77. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
Castillo, H. (1990). La Sociedad de la Basura: Caciquismo Urbano en la Ciudad de México. Second Edition. Mexico City: UNAM.
Cointreau, S. and M. de Kaadt. (1991). Living with Garbage: Cities Learn to Recycle. Development Forum, Jan-Feb: 12-13.
Cointreau, S. (1982). Environmental Management of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Chapin, Ch. (1995). The Rag-pickers of Pune. The UNESCO Courier. March: 18-19.
Durning, A. (1989). Action at the Grassroots: Fighting Poverty and Environmental Decline. Worldwatch Paper 88. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
Fundación Social. (1991). Tecnología, Diseño Industrial y Factores Humanos en el Reciclaje de Basuras. Bogotá: Fundación Social-Programa Nacional de Reciclaje.
Fundación Social. (1990). Memorias del Primer Encuentro Nacional de Recicladores. Bogotá: Fundación Social-Programa Nacional de Reciclaje.
Furedy, Ch. (1991). Social Aspects of Solid Waste Recovery in Asian Cities. Environmental Sanitation Reviews. 30. Bangkok: Environmental Sanitation Center.
Furedy, Ch. (1984). Resource-Conserving Traditions and Waste Disposal: The Garbage Farms and Sewage-Fed Fisheries of Calcutta. Conservation & Recycling. 7: 181-190.
Gonzalez, J., M. Cadena and M. Suremain. (1993). Estudio Sobre los Circuitos de Reciclaje de Desechos Sólidos en la Ciudad de Bogotá. Bogotá: ENDA America Latina: 45-67.
Guibbert, J. (ed.). (1988). Saneamiento Alternativo o Alternativas al Saneamiento. Bogotá: ENDA América Latina.
Herrera, J. (1995). Pepenadores de todo en la basura. Excelsior. Mexico City. May 22.
Holmes, J. (1984). Solid Waste Management Decisions in Developing Countries. In Holmes, J. (ed.) Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Jaramillo, G. (1991). Cooperativa Recuperar: De Basuriegos a Empresarios. In Trabajando Con Desechos: Experiencias Colombianas. Bogotá: Fondo Rotatorio Editorial.
Kirov, N. (1982). General Overview of Waste Management Practices and Needs in Developing Countries. In J. Thome-Kosmienzky (ed.) Recycling in Developing Countries. Berlin: Freitag: 34-47.
Kresse, K. and J. Ringeltaube. (1982). How Resource Recovery and Appropriate Technologies Can Cut Costs of Waste Management in Developing Countries. In J. Thome-Kosmienzky (ed.) Recycling in Developing Countries. Berlin: Freitag.
Lohani, B. and J. Baldisimo. (1990). Foille et tri a Manille. Dakar, Senegal: Environnement Africain. 29-30: 181-190.
Maynez, S. (1988). El Reino de la Basura. Proceso. 587. Mexico City.
Medina, M. (1998). Scavenger Cooperatives in Developing Countries. BioCycle, June: 70-72.
Medina, M. (1997). Scavenging on the Border: A Study of the Informal Recycling Sector in Laredo, Texas, and Nuevo Laredo, Mexico. Ph. D. Dissertation, Yale University.
Medina, M. (1997). The Effect of Income on Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates for Countries of Varying Levels of Economic Development: A Model. Journal of Solid Waste Technology & Management. August: 149-155.
Medina, M. (1997). Informal Recycling and Collection of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries: Issues and Opportunities. Tokyo: United Nations University / Institute of Advanced Studies Working Paper No. 24.
Medina, M. (1997). Supporting Scavenger Coops in Colombia. BioCycle. June: 45-47.
Medina, M. (1993). Recovery of Recyclables in Mexico City. Urban Issues. New Haven: Urban Resources Institute: 17-18.
Medina, M. (1993). 1993a. Collecting Recyclables in Metro Manila. BioCycle. June: 51-53.
Mendoza, G. (1983). Contaminación por Desechos Sólidos en el D.F. Mexico City: IPN: 78.
Meyer, G. (1987). Waste Recycling as a Livelihood in the Informal Sector- The Example of Refuse Collectors in Cairo. Applied Geography and Development; 30: 78-94.
Ouano, E. (1991). Developing Appropriate Technology for Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: Metro Manila Pilot as a Case Study. International Expert
Group Seminar on Policy Responses Towards Improving Solid Waste Management in Asian Metropolises. Bandung, Indonesia, February 4-8: 13.
PCI. (1988). The Study on Solid Waste Management for Metro Manila in the Republic of the Philippines. Tokyo: Pacific Consultants International.
Phatak, P. (1993). Urbanisation, Poverty and Environmental Considerations: A Micro-Level
Perspective. In V. Agnihotri (ed.) Environment and Development. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co.
Phillips, D. and I. Restrepo. (1984). El Proyecto Basura. American Behavioral Scientist. 8.
Salazar, J. (1995). Serán Construídos 13 Rellenos Sanitarios Más en la República. Excelsior. June 22. Mexico City.
Tonon, F. (1990). Gestion des Ordures Ménagères à Cotonou. Environnement Africain. 29-30: 79-92.
UNCHS. (1989). Refuse Collection Vehicles for Developing Countries. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements.
Vogler, J. (1984). Waste Recycling in Developing Countries: A Review of the Social, Technological, and Market Forces. In Holmes, (ed.) Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 244.
Wells, Ch. (1995). Managing Solid Wastes in Brazil. BioCycle. June: 53.
Sandra Cointreau-Levine and Adrian Coad. (2000). Private sector participation in municipal solid waste management.
http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/Toolkits/waste_fulltoolkit.pdf

Developing an Environmental Consciousness in Iraqi-Kurdistan

A report on the environmental conditions of Iraqi-Kurdistan

Walking through the street in Iraqi-Kurdistan you get a feel for the need of an improved garbage collection system. Paper, metal, plastics, cardboard, and all matter of waste are washed down the streets already performing the duties of exposed sewer lines and pedestrian thoroughfares. The filth clogs drains forcing everything behind it to build up until enough force is created to push the mess further down the street clogging up the next drain creating a chain reaction that ends with sewage and garbage seeping into and contaminating local and downstream water supplies. As Northern Iraq is the headwaters for the Tigris, and the Euphrates Rivers this means that downstream is the rest of the Middle East.

The United Nation Environment Program has stated that roughly 80% of marine debris originates from land-based sources and activities. In addition, plastics make up 90% of floating marine debris.

Plastics have been found in the digestive tracts of over 100 species of seabirds. In fact, by 1998, the Marine Mammal Commission reported that marine debris had affected at least 267 animal species around the world. It is also important to note that one piece of rubbish can kill more than one animal in its litter lifespan.

Even with this type of an impact little concern is given for the environment. The largest concerns in this area are a lack of continuous electrical power, the rising price of fuel, and a lack of clean drinking water. Limited thought and effort can be placed on new business ideas that deal with the environment. Focus is often diverted from long term implications to short term gains. Little thought is being placed on tomorrow. The irony is that having a longer term vision of environmental conscience has proven time and again to positively affect these short term concerns precisely because short term solutions deal with symptoms rather than root causes.
One of the largest contributors to accumulated waste is the unequal balance of imports to exports. As a developing country, Iraqi-Kurdistan has imports that far outnumber its exports. The imports that Iraqi-Kurdistan sees are increasing their content of plastics. The characteristics that increasingly make plastic the manufacturing and packaging material of choice, i.e. light weight, durable, less expensive, also make it a challenge to collect and recycle. Plastic materials when released into the environment can also be a visual blight and harmful to wildlife. Nor does plastics debris degrade in the environment; instead it tends to accumulate, creating long-term environmental problems.

The only real form of wealth accumulation in Iraqi-Kurdistan is from external support or from the sale of oil. Due to the Oil for Food program even produce is brought in from other countries instead of being created in the fertile plains of Iraqi-Kurdistan thereby destroying the local farming culture. Everyone is moving out of the villages and into the cities. To make up for this growth cities have been reaching further outward and upward. This has increased population density and growing with it is the amount of litter, garbage, waste materials, refuse, or whatever else you want to call it. The majority of this garbage is collected and placed in a local collection spot where it is burnt.

Dioxin is one of the many pollutants given off from burning of trash. Dioxin is a catchall term for three chemical groups: true dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The most dangerous form of dioxin, 2,3,7,8 -tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxcin (or its abbreviation, 2378 - TCDD), has been called "the most lethal human-made poison." Its toxicity is second only to radioactive waste; just three ounces would be enough to kill one million people. Even at levels less than one part per billion, it can cause serious health impairments. It was once used in Agent Orange, the Vietnam-era herbicide that continues to cause health problems for many American veterans exposed over thirty years ago. Dioxin contamination at Love Canal (Niagara Falls, NY) forced hundreds of families to abandon their homes.

Given off in large quantities by burning plastics and paper, dioxin accumulates in the soil in areas surrounding burn sites. Ground-level concentrations of dioxin resulting from burning household garbage in a burn barrel are 7,000 times more then the amount formed when garbage is burned in a resource recovery facility. Slow to break down, dioxins linger for centuries in the affected area and are absorbed into plants that grow in the contaminated soil. Animals that eat these plants absorb the dioxin, and ultimately dioxin makes its way to humans who eat the animals or crops grown in this soil. Dioxin does not break down or pass out of our bodies; it accumulates in our fat cells.

Ash and other particulate matter can irritate the eyes and throat, damage the lungs, cause bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, and restrict visibility. It can seriously affect people with asthma or certain allergies. Burn barrel ash laden with heavy metals is particularly toxic, and often seeps into ground water.

To prevent an even greater tragedy Iraq needs to start addressing their trash problem. Simple changes need to be made first and foremost. The first change that needs to be made is to stop bringing the trash up into the mountains. It is better to have the trash collected in lower areas that will not contaminate downstream resources. The second major undertaking is to separate the trash that is collected into recyclables, hazardous materials, and biodegradable waste.
The recyclable materials need to be collected and either processed in country or exported for profit. Successful recovery of plastics -- like any material -- requires an infrastructure that can get plastics from the consumer and back into use as new products. The plastics recycling infrastructure has four parts:

Collection-Rather than being thrown away, plastics (primarily PETand HDPE) are collected for recycling. Curbside collection with other materials and drop-off at recycling centers are common plastics collection methods.

Handling-Plastics from collection programs are sorted to increase their value and compacted to reduce shipping costs.

Reclamation-In conventional recycling, sorted plastics are chopped, washed and converted into flakes or pellets that are then processed into new products. Advanced recycling technologies can take mixed plastics back to their original building blocks (monomers or petroleum feedstocks). These can then be recycled into a number of different products, including new plastics.

End-use-Reclaimed plastic pellets or flakes-or petroleum feedstocks-are used to manufacture new products.

The variety of products made with recycled plastics is growing. Here are just a few examples:
· Recycled PET can be used in producing deli and bakery trays, carpets, clothing and textiles.
· Recycled HDPE can become bottles for laundry produ cts, recycling bins, agricultural pipe, bags, motor oil bottles, decking and marine pilings.
· Recycled vinyl can become playground equipment, film and airbubble cushioning.
· Recycled LDPE can be used to manufacture bags, shrink film and compost bins.
· Recycled PP can be used in automobile parts, carpets, battery casings, textiles, industrial fibers and films used for packaging products such as candy.
· Recycled PS can be used in products including office accessories, video cassettes and cases.

All hazardous materials need to be placed in suitable containment facilities and treated until they are benign or they can be disposed of with the least environmental impact. Biodegradable waste can then be accumulated and contained to enable the methane to be trapped and used as an energy creation facility. The decomposed waste can then be turned into humus that can be sold as nutrient rich soil.

As these programs are developed, a large scale population education program has to take place teaching the locals the methodology behind the “reduce-reuse-recycle” campaign. Care will have to be given to promote an environmental social conscience that will allow for a sustainable future in Iraq. At the current rate of expansion in Northern Iraq coupled with the waste management practices used today, Northern Iraqi cities will soon be swimming in their own filth. The amount of pollutions caused by the cities will contaminate the drinking water and release pollutants into the air leading to widespread disease and death. There are many diseases and problems that are already noted as being caused by burning trash and having plastics in the environment.

In 2004 Dr. Sarah (Steve) Mosko, Ph.D did research into “What Else Is In Plastic.” Her studies discovered that many “stabilizers” are placed in plastics to ensure that they remain rigid during use. These stabilizers can separate from the plastic and be absorbed into the human body. The manufacturing of these plastics will also release more and more contaminants into the environment. Recycling these plastics will decrease the amount of harmful stabilizers released into the atmosphere from production and into the ground from burying and the air from burning. The toxins in plastics buried and burned is realeased into the environment causing Decreased rates of pregnancy and higher rates of miscarriage along with other pregnancy complications. Children with Asthma were noticed to have an increased amount of plastic toxins in their urine. Males who have noticed a decrease in their sperm count and increase in testicular cancer were all noticed to have higher levels of phthalates (a stabilizer found in plastics) in their urine.

Ensuring that hazardous materials do not make their way into the ground water, soil, and atmosphere is the responsibility of whoever is in power in Iraqi-Kurdistan but is an area of concern for anyone who gets water from the Tigris or Euphrates Rivers. The wholesale pollution of these headwaters is affecting all of the downstream populace. Efforts need to be put in place immediately to stem the flow of toxins from trash into the environment. Only when the supply is stopped can anything be done about the pollutants that are already there.

The first step in this process is for the Kurdistan Regional Government to appoint a Minister of Refuse Collection and Remediation in the Ministry for the Environment. This Minister would be in charge of ensuring waste management facilities in all areas of Kurdistan meet international requirements for health concerns. This minister would also be responsible for ensuring all future expansion planning has environmental impact assessments (EIA) done prior to the commencement of any work. This will allow an integrated environmental management (IEM) plan to take precedence in the country minimizing environmental impact of progress. The Minister is intended to guide, rather than impede the development process by providing an approach to gathering and analyzing information, and ensuring that it can be easily understood by all interested and affected parties in the development. The purpose of this ministry is to resolve or lessen any negative environmental impacts and to enhance positive aspects of development proposals.

The second step in this process is for the Kurdistan Regional Government to work with local Municipality Ministries to facilitate changes in trash collection and processing procedures. Educational campaigns would have to be undertaken to utilize trash separation practices at the lowest levels. Trash receptacles would be clearly marked at public areas, homes, and businesses for recyclable materials, biodegradable trash, and hazardous materials. This trash could be collected on different days, or by different vehicles. Biodegradable and recyclable trash could be collected by private entities, which have special permission from the ministry. Hazardous waste would be collected by the municipalities for sorting and proper remediation at the waste collection facility. The utmost care would be taken to limit environmental impact during the collection, processing, and storage practice.

The recycling aspect is best approached by a private entity, with government backing, that is set up to process the recyclables and sell them to outside buyers. These recyclables can be baled and shipped out of the country or they can be processed into usable base materials. These materials may then be exported or used by manufacturers in the region. As Kurdistan is land locked, private companies would need government assistance to set up recycling centers that would be able to handle the needs of the community. Helping companies offset the cost of setting up recycling centers would be cheaper for the KRG then establishing, running, and maintaining a recycling center on its own. In turn, the impact of reusing the generated waste has a value beyond compare. Government assistance could include donation of land for recycling centers, assistance in the collection of recyclable materials, separation of recyclable materials in existing landfills, and waiving of fees and taxes for businesses involved in the recycling operation.
Biodegradable waste will need to be taken away from the city and placed in a facility that can trap the methane emitted during decomposition. The escaping methane can be burned in an electricity generator allowing power generation to be utilized by the facility and extra power to be sold back to the main grid. When the waste has decomposed into humus it can then be packaged and sold as fertilizer or soil. This humus can be used to revitalize farmland without the use of pesticides, insecticides, and harmful toxins used in chemically enhanced soil nutrients. This will lead to larger farm yields and increased competitive advantage for local farmers. This program can be undertaken by the city or by a private entity. Similar means of support for the recycling centers can be used for the biodegradable waste center with the possible addition of government purchase of the humus for distribution to farmers.

Once these programs are in place, care can be given to clean Kurdistan of all waste materials that are collecting in the rivers, hills, cities, and environment. This will increase the beauty of Kurdistan bolstering tourist revenues, and improving the quality of life of the people in Kurdistan and all of the Middle East. This community clean up program can be accomplished by using manpower to simply go around the community and pick up all of the trash that is lying around and placing it in the proper trash receptacles. The manpower for this can be garnered from local schools, universities, businesses, and corrections institutions. Care can be taken to instruct government funded agencies when and where the cleanup needs to take place. A medial campaign can be launched to caste a favorable light upon volunteering ones’ time to such a cause.

The media will play a major role in the success of this campaign. The public needs to be informed on the importance of recycling and keeping their city clean. This may not be considered a priority when there is no continuous electrical power or clean drinking water, but these problems are not mutually exclusive. The dirty water is part of the pollution problem due to poor garbage collection and remediation practices. Lack of continuous electrical power is in-part due to poor electrical practices that cause a conglomerate of wasted wiring to be strung from building to building without a care for removal of old wires when new ones are put in. These wires still carry an electrical load and cause for the power limit to be reached far sooner then would be necessitated if better power management practices were in place.
Once these practices are agreed upon and put in place an Environmental Audit should be done by an official auditing firm from Europe or America. At that point they auditing team will point our areas that still need improvement and give ideas on how to improve these areas. The initial cost will be considerable but with adopting environmentally friendly practices an area can run more efficiently and reduce overall costs for the locale. Non-first world countries have to learn to live within the means of their country. Without a program to ensure a streamlined environmental and economical policy a non-first world country will soon find itself without the economic power to support its own population.

As a newly forming and developing nation Kurdistan has the chance to ensure that its progress is inline with promoting strong future potency in the Middle East by ensuring its environmental concerns are inline with its economic and progressive goals. Only by using its resources in a manner that will aid continued progress and prosperity will Kurdistan ensure its own existence past the supply of its limited resources of oil and oil byproducts. Once that oil is exhausted Kurdistan will soon find that its greatest renewable resource is its water and fertile land. We can only hope that in the exploitation of oil these resources are not abandoned and ruined for future use.

List of References
1. Consumer Reports, August 2000, pp. 17-21.
2. NRDC Study, 1999. Bottled Water Contamination: An Overview of NRDC's and Others' Surveys. (www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/bw/chap3.asp)
3. Reuters (London): March 19, 2004: CNN.com (London): March 25, 2004.
4. Washington Post: March 30, 2004. What's in that Bottle?
5. LA Times, May 3, 2004: Cosmetics Chemical Banned in Europe.
6. Source is mindfully.org, posted 1992 (original source was www.epa.gov/owowwtr/OCPD/PLASTIC/2-add.html which is no longer available).
7. Stringer R. et al. 2001. Toxic chemicals in a child's world: an investigation into PVC plastics. Greenpeace Research Laboratories, UK.
8. For review see: National Environmental Trust: "Studies on Bisphenol-A Migration from Polycarbonate Plastic" (www.net.org/health/products/plasticwrap/migration.vtml).
9. Hunt PA et al. 2003. Bisphenol-A exposure causes meiotic aneuploidy in the female mouse. Current Biology; 13: 546-553.
10. Latini G et al. 2003. In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environ. Health Perspect.: 111(14); 1783-1785.
11. National Toxicology Program Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction. 2000. NTP-CERHR Expert Panel Report NPT-CERHR-DEHP-00 (National Toxicology Program Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, Washington, DC).
12. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1985. Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogenesis (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C. National Toxicology Program and Prevention Publication No. 85-002).
13. Akingbemi BT et al. 2004. Phthalate-induced Leydig cell hyperplasia is associated with multiple endocrine disturbances. PNAS 101(3) 775-780.
14. Blount BC et al. 2000a. Quantitative detection of eight phthalate metabolites in human urine using HPLC-APCI-MS/MS. Anal. Chem. 72: 4127-4134.
15. Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR). 2000. NTP-CEHR Expert Panel Report on Di(2-ethylhexyl)Phthalate. Alexandria, VA: Science Inter national, Inc.
16. Blount BC et al. 2000b. Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population. Environ. Health. Perspect. 108 (10):979-982.
17. Aldyreva MV et al. 1975. The effect of phthalate plasticizers on the generative function. Gig. Tr. Prof. Zabol. 19:25-29.
18. Tabacova S et al. 1999. Maternal exposure to phthalates and complications of pregnancy. Epidemiology 10(Suppl):S127.
19. Colon I et al. 2000. Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ. Health Perspect. 108(9):895-900.
20. Herman-Giddens ME et al. 1997. Secondary sexual characteristics and menses in young girls seen in office practice: a study from the Pediatric Research in Office Settings network. Pediatrics 99:505-512.
21. Lovekamp-Swan T and Davis BJ. 2003. Mechanisms of phthalate ester toxicity in the female reproductive system. Environmen. Health Perspect. 111(2):139-145.
22. Ward JM et al. 1998. Receptor and nonreceptor-mediated organ toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-null mice. Toxicol. Pathol. 26:240-246.
23. CDC, 2001: National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/dis/report 2001:1-8.
24. ATSDR, 2000. Toxicological profile for Di-2ethylhexyl) phthalate. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Available: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles.
25. Duty SM et al. 2003a Phthalate exposure and human semen parameters. Epidemiology 14(3):269-277.
26. Duty S et al. 2003b. The relationship between environmental exposures to phthalates and DNA damage in human sperm using the neutral comet assay. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(9);1164-1169.
27. Rudel RA et al. 2001. Identification of selected hormonally active agents and animals mammary carcinogens in commercial and residential air and dust samples. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 51:499-513.
28. Rudel Ra et al. 2003. Phthalates, alkylphenols, pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and other endocrine-disrupting compounds in indoor air and dust. Environmental Sci. Technol. 37:4543-4553.
29. Hoppin JA et al. 2004. Phthalate exposure and pulmonary function. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(5):571-574.
30. Adibi JA et al. 2003. Prenatal exposures to phthalates among women in New York City and Krakow, Poland. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:1719-1722.
31. Peterson JH and Breindahl R. 2000. Plasticizers in total diet samples, baby food and infant formulae. Food Addit. Contam. 17(2):133-141.
32. Oie, L et al. 1997. Residential exposure to plasticizers and its possible role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Environ. Health Perspect. 105(9): 972-978.
33. Jaakkola, JJK et al. 1999. Interior surface materials in the home and the development of bronchial obstruction in young children in Oslo, Norway. American Journal of Public Health; 89(2): 188-192.
34. Roth B et al. 1988. Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate as plasticizer in PVC respiratory tubing systems: indication of hazardous effects on pulmonary function in mechanically ventilated, preterm infants. Eur. J. Pediatr.147:41-46.
35. Brotons, JA et al. 1995. Xenoestrogens released from lacquer coatings in food cans. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(6):608-12.
36. Biles JE et al. 1997. Determination of bisphenol A migrating from expoxy can coatings to infant formula liquid concentrates. Am. Chem. Soc. 45:4697-4700.
37. Matsumoto A et al. 2003. Bisphenol A levels in human urine. Environ. Health Perspect. 111(1): 101-104.
38. Ponsonby AL et al. 2003. Synthetic bedding and wheeze in childhood. Epidemiology 14(1):37-44.
39. Carlsen E et al. 1992. Evidence for deceasing quality of semen during past 50 years. Br. Med. J. 305(6854):609-613.
40. Skakkebaek NE. 2003. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Horm. Res. 60(Suppl. 3):49.
41. Rozati R et al. 2002. Role of environmental estrogens in the deterioration of male factor fertility. Fertil. Steril. 78:1187-1194.
42. Auger et al. 1995. Decline in semen quality among fertile men in Paris during the past 20 years. New Engl. J. Med. 332(5):281-285.
43. Toppari J et al. 1996. Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environ. Health Perspec. 104(Suppl 4):741-803.
44. Sharman M et al. 1994. Levels of di-(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate and total phthalate esters in milk, cream, butter and cheese. Food Add. Contam. 11:375-385.
45. Krishnan AV et al. 1993. Bisphenol-A: an estrogenic substance is released from polycarbonate flasks during autoclaving. Endocrinol. 132: 2279-2286.
46. Brock et al. 2002. Phthalate monoester levels in the urine of young children. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 68:309-314.
47. Koch HM et al. An estimation of the daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and other phthalates in the general population. Int. J. Hygeine & Environ. Health 206(2):77-83.
48. Harder B. 2004. Phthalate exposure from drugs? Science News 165(14):221.
49. LA TIMES article, May 2004: Cosmetics Chemical Banned in Europe.
50. Pickrell J. July 2002. More than skin deep? Science News 162(2):36.
51. J.R. April 2001. How polluted we are. Science News 159(14):221.
52. Rais-Bahrami K et al. 2004. Follow-up study of adolescents exposed to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as neonates on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support. Environ. Health Perspect. 112(13):1339-1340.
53. Tickner JA et al. 2001. Health risks posed by the use of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in PVC medical devices: a critical review. Am. J. Ind. Med. 39:100-111.
54. Davis BJ et al. 1994. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses estradiol and ovulation in cycling rats. Toxic. Appl. Pharmacol. 128:216-223.
55. Raloff J. Nov. 2003. California acts on plastic additive. Science News 164(18):1/4p.
56. Ema M and Emiko M. 2001. Effects of monobutyl phthalate on reproductive function in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reproductive Toxicol. 15:261-267.
57. Melnick R et al. 2002. Summary of the National Toxicology Program's Report of the Endocrine Disruptors Low-Dose Peer Review. Environ. Health Perspect. 110(4):427-431.
58. Fisher JS et al. 2003. Human "testicular dysgenesis syndrome": a possible model using in-utero exposure of the rat to dibutyl phthalate. Human Reprod. 18(7):13831394.
59. Pace F. (Environmental Working Group). 2003. EPA studying whether Teflon poses health risks. Register-Herald: Nov. 24, 2003.
60. Stinger R et al. 2000. Concentrations of phthalate esters and identification of other additives in PVC children's toys. Environ. Sci. & Pollut. Res. 7:1-10.
61. Food and Drug Administration. July 12, 2002. Public Health Notification: PVC Devices Containing the Plasticizer DEHP. Available at www.fda.gov.
62. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Jan. 2003. Second National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Available at www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/2nd.
63. Fredricsson B et al. 1993. Human sperm motility is affected by plasticizers and diesel particle extracts. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 72(2):128-133.
64. Di Gangi J. 1997. Lead and cadmium in vinyl children;s products; a Greenpeace expose. Greenpeace USA, Washington DC, October.
65. US Consumer Product Safety Commission. 1997. CPSC Staff Report on Lead and Cadmium in Children's Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Products. Available at www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/pbcdtoys.
66. Consumer Reports. June 1998. Hormone mimics. They're in our food; Should we worry? pp. 52-55.
67. Shea KM and Committee on Environmental Health, 2003. Pediatric exposure and potential toxicity of phthalate plasticizers. Pediatrics 111:1467-1474.
68. National Toxicology Program Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction Expert Panel Review of Phthalates. July, 2000. Available at ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/liason/CerhrPhthalatesAnnet.
69. Los Angeles Times Magazine, Aug. 1, 2004: An Idyll Interrupted. By Kenneth Miller: p. 8. 70. World Wildlife Fund-commissioned Study, "Bottled Water: Understanding a Social Phenomenon." 2001.
71. Mato Y et al. Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35(2):318-324.
72. Moore CJ et al. 2002. A comparison of neustonic plastics and zooplankton abundance in southern California's coastal waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:1035-38.
73. Moore CJ et al. 2001. A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42(12):129-130.
74. World Health Organization Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. WHO's Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Available at www.unicef.org/wes/gafull.pdf.
75. Bornehag CG et al. 2004. The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: a nested case-controlled study. Environ Health Perspect. 2004 Oct;112(14):1393-7.
76. Lehmann KP et al. 2004. Dose-dependent alterations in gene expression and testosterone synthesis in the fetal testes of male rats exposed to di (n-butyl) phthalate. Toxicol. Sci. 81(1):60-68.
77. Kannon K et al. 2004. Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood from several countries. Environ. Sci. Technol. (in press).
78. Cone M. Ancestral diet gone toxic. Los Angeles Times, Jan. 13, 2004.
79. Thompson RC et al. 2004. Lost at sea: Where is all that plastic? Science 304:838.
80. Fredricsson et al. 1993. Human sperm motility is affected by plasticizers and diesel particle extracts. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 72(2):128-133.
81. Kim et al. 2003. Gender differences in the levels of bisphenol A metabolites in urine. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 312(2):441-8.
82. Ikezuki Y et al. 2002. Determination of bisphenol A concentrations in human biological fluids revels significant early prenatal exposure. Human Reproduction 17:2839-2841.
83. Calafat AM et al. 2004. Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate among premature neonates in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatrics 113(5):e429-e434.
84. Rudel RA et al. 2003. Phthalates, alkylphenols, pesticides, polybrominated diphen yl esters, and other endocrine-disrupting compounds in indoor air and dust. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37(20:4543-4553.
85. Fisher JS. 2004. Environmental anti-androgens and male reproductive health: focus on phthalates and testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Reproduction 127:305-315.
86. Adibi et al. 2003. Prenatal exposure to phthalates among women in New York City and Krakow, Poland. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:1719-1722. Toxic Plastic Additives Sarah (Steve) Mosko, Ph.D. Nov 2004
87. Toxic Plastic Additives Sarah (Steve) Mosko, Ph.D. Nov 2004
88. http://www.americanchemistry.com/
89. http://www.earthresource.org/
90. http://www.epa.gov/